Steroid induced neuroprotection of damaged photoreceptor cells

Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) is the name given to a group of hereditary diseases causing progressive and degenerative blindness. RP affects over 1 in 4000 individuals, making it the most prevalent inherited retinal disease worldwide, yet currently there is no cure. In 2011, our group released a paper detailing the protective effects of the synthetic progestin ‘Norgestrel’. A common component of the female oral contraceptive pill, Norgestrel was shown to protect against retinal cell death in two distinct mouse models of retinal degeneration: in the Balb/c light damage model and the Pde6brd10 (rd10) model. Little was known of the molecular workings of this compound however and thus this study aimed to elucidate the protective manner in which Norgestrel worked. To this aim, the 661W cone photoreceptor-like cell line and ex vivo retinal explanting was utilised. We found that Norgestrel induces a increase in neuroprotective basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) with subsequent downstream actions on the inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3β. Progesterone receptor expression was subsequently characterised in the C57 and rd10 retinas and in the 661W cell line. Norgestrel caused nuclear trafficking of progesterone receptor membrane complex one (PGRMC1) in 661W cells and thus Norgestrel was hypothesised to work primarily through the actions of PGRMC1. This trafficking was shown to be responsible for the critical upregulation of bFGF and PGRMC1- Norgestrel binding was proven to cause a neuroprotective bFGF-mediated increase in intracellular calcium. The protective properties of Norgestrel were further studied in the rd10 mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa. Using non-invasive diet supplementation (80mg/kg), we showed that Norgestrel gave significant retinal protection out to postnatal day 40 (P40). Overactive microglia have previously been shown to potentiate photoreceptor cell loss in the degenerating rd10 retina and thus we focussed on Norgestrel-mediated changes in photoreceptor-microglial crosstalk. Norgestrel acted to dampen pro-inflammatory microglial cell reactivity, decreasing chemokine (MCP1, MCP3, MIP-1α, MIP-1β) and subsequent damaging cytokine (TNFα, Il-1β) production. Critically, Norgestrel up-regulated photoreceptor-microglial, fractalkine-CX3CR1 signalling 1000-fold in the P20 rd10 mouse. Known to prevent microglial activation, we hypothesise that Norgestrel acts as a vital anti-inflammatory in the diseased retina, driving fractalkine-CX3CR1 signalling to delay retinal degeneration. This study stands to highlight some of the neuroprotective mechanisms utilised by Norgestrel in the prevention of photoreceptor cell death. We identify for the first time, not only a pro-survival pathway activated directly in photoreceptor cells, but also a Norgestreldriven mediation of an otherwise damaging microglial cell response. All taken, these results form the beginning of a case to bring Norgestrel to clinical trials, as a potential therapeutic for the treatment of RP.

Micropropagation of Begonia and a study of genome stability in Begonia rex

The development of procedures and media for the micropropagation of B. rex are described. Media for the production of plantlets from a number of other Begonia hybrids are also provided. Growth analysis data is given for plants produced in vivo from leaf cuttings and in vitro from mature leaf petioles and immature leaves derived from singly and multiply recycled axenic plantlets. No significant difference was found in phenotype or quantitative vegetative characters for any of the populations assessed. The results presented from studies on the development of broad spectrum media for the propagation of a number of B. rex cultivars using axenic leaf explants on factorial combinations of hormones illustrate the major influence played by the genotype on explant response in vitro and suggest media on which a range of B. rex cultivars may be propagated. Procedures for in vitro irradiation and colchicine treatments to destabilize the B. rex genome have also been described. Variants produced from these treatments indicate the utility of in vitro procedures for the expression of induced somatic variation. Colour variants produced from irradiation treatment have been cultured and prove stable. Polyploids produced as variants from irradiation treatment have been subcultured but prove unstable. Media for the induction and proliferation of callus are outlined. The influence of callus subculture and aging on the stability of the B. rex genome is assessed by chromosomal analysis of cells, in vitro and in regenerants. The B. rex genome is destabilized in callus culture but attenuation of variation occurs on regeneration. Diploid cell lines are maintained in callus subcultures and supplementation of regenerative media with high cytokinin concentrations, casein hydrolysate or adenine failed to produce variants. Callus aging however resulted in the production of polyploids. The presence and expression of pre-existing somatic variation in B. rex pith and root tissue is assessed and polyploids have been produced from pith tissues cultured in vitro. The stability of the B. rex genome and the application of tissue culture to micropropagation and breeding of B. rex are discussed.

Ryanodine receptor expression in trophoblasts

Trophoblasts of the placenta are the frontline cells involved in communication and exchange of materials between the mother and fetus. Within trophoblasts, calcium signalling proteins are richly expressed. Intracellular free calcium ions are a key second messenger, regulating various cellular activities. Transcellular Ca2+ transport through trophoblasts is essential in fetal skeleton formation. Ryanodine receptors (RyRs) are high conductance cation channels that mediate Ca2+ release from intracellular stores to the cytoplasm. To date, the roles of RyRs in trophoblasts have not been reported. By use of reverse transcription PCR and western blotting, the current study revealed that RyRs are expressed in model trophoblast cell lines (BeWo and JEG-3) and in human first trimester and term placental villi. Immunohistochemistry of human placental sections indicated that both syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast cell layers were positively stained by antibodies recognising RyRs; likewise, expression of RyR isoforms was also revealed in BeWo and JEG-3 cells by immunofluorescence microscopy. In addition, changes in [Ca2+]i were observed in both BeWo and JEG-3 cells upon application of various RyR agonists and antagonists, using fura-2 fluorescent videomicroscopy. Furthermore, endogenous placental peptide hormones, namely angiotensin II, arginine vasopressin and endothelin 1, were demonstrated to increase [Ca2+]i in BeWo cells, and such increases were suppressed by RyR antagonists and by blockers of the corresponding peptide hormone receptors. These findings indicate that 1) multiple RyR subtypes are expressed in human trophoblasts; 2) functional RyRs in BeWo and JEG-3 cells response to both RyR agonists and antagonists; 3) RyRs in BeWo cells mediate Ca2+ release from intracellular store in response to the indirect stimulation by endogenous peptides. These observations suggest that RyR contributes to trophoblastic cellular Ca2+ homeostasis; trophoblastic RyRs are also involved in the functional regulation of human placenta by coupling to endogenous placental peptide-induced signalling pathways.

An investigation into mechanisms of visceral pain in rodents

Visceral pain is a debilitating symptom of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), a disorder affecting up to 30% of adults. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying visceral hypersensitivity may facilitate development of more targeted therapies, improving the quality of life of these individuals. The studies performed in this thesis were designed to investigate important factors of visceral pain, including early-life manipulations, genetic predisposition and sex hormones. Maternal separation (MS) consistently reproduces visceral hypersensitivity and altered anxiety-like behaviours in rats, symptoms associated with IBS. It has been found that 5-HT2B receptor antagonism blocks visceral pain but no difference in relative 5-HT2B receptor mRNA expression was found in hippocampus, amygdala and colon. The neuronal activation patterns of prefrontal cortex and amygdala of MS rats were then investigated. MS animals are characterised by differential activation of the prefrontal cortex (anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), infralibic cortex, prelimbic cortex) as well as the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA). Genetic factors also contribute to pain syndromes such as IBS. We utilised the Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rat, a stress-sensitive strain, as an animal model of brain-gut axis dysfunction. WKY rats have a lower expression of the glutamate transporter EAAT2 and mGlu4 receptor in the ACC. Another early-life factor that can increase susceptibility to functional gastrointestinal symptoms later life is disruption of the gut microbiota, thus early-life antibiotic treatment was used to assess this effect. Antibiotic treatment induced visceral hypersensitivity in adulthood and may be related to observed reductions in spinal cord alpha-2A adrenoreceptor (adra2A) mRNA. Lastly, we investigated sex differences in visceral sensitivity. EAAT1 & 2 mRNA levels are lower in females, potentially increasing glutamatergic concentration at the symaptic level. Moreover, NR1 and NR2B subunits mRNA of NMDA receptor were increased in caudal ACC of females. These findings may account for sex differences in visceral sensitivity.

Stress-induced visceral pain in rodents: neurochemical, hormonal, immune and epigenetic mechanisms

Visceral pain is a debilitating disorder which affects up to 25% of the population at any one time. It is a global term used to describe pain originating from the internal organs, which is distinct from somatic pain. Currently the treatment strategies are unsatisfactory, with development of novel therapeutics hindered by a lack of detailed knowledge of the underlying mechanisms. The work presented in this thesis aimed to redress this issue and look in more detail at the molecular mechanisms of visceral pain in preclinical models. Stress has long been implicated in the pathophysiology of visceral pain in both preclinical and clinical studies. Here a mouse model of early-life stress-induced visceral hypersensitivity was validated. Moreover, mouse strain differences were also apparent in visceral sensitivity suggesting a possible genetic component to the underlying pathophysiology. Furthermore, gender and sex hormones were also implicated in stress sensitivity and visceral pain. Using the rat model of maternal separation, some of the epigenetic mechanisms underpinning visceral hypersensitivity, specifically the contribution of histone acetylation were unravelled. Glutamate has been well established in somatic pain processing, however, its contribution to visceral pain has not been extensively characterised. It was found that glutamate uptake is impaired in viscerally hypersensitive animals, an effect which could be reversed by treatment with riluzole, a glutamate uptake activator. Moreover, negative modulation of the metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor 7 was sufficient to reverse visceral hypersensitivity in a stress sensitive rat strain, the Wistar Kyoto rat. Furthermore, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was implicated in chronic stress-induced visceral hypersensitivity. Taken together, these findings have furthered our knowledge of the pathophysiology of visceral pain. In addition, we have identified glutamate transporters, mGlu7 receptor, histone acetylation and TLR4 as novel targets, amenable to pharmacological manipulation for the specific treatment of visceral pain.